There Were Many People Involved In The Scientific Revolution And The E

There were many people involved in the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment. Most of these people were fine scholars. It all started out with Copernicus and his book called On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres. This book marked the beginning of modern astrology. The current dispute at times echoes the tensions that existed in the sixteenth century between believers in the Copernican theory of the universe and the Ptolemaic established order, which preached that the earth was the center of the galaxy. His theory was anathema to the church and a threat to the established way of thinking about the world and the people in it. Skeptical thinkers, such as Galileo and Kepler, produced treatises that helped build a case for an alternative way of viewing the solar system. It was a gradual shift in professional allegiances in educational evaluation. No promises can be made for the power of a new paradigm offers a new set of explanations of our educational system. Descartes contemporary, the English philosopher Francis Bacon, took a somewhat stronger line concerning how conclusions should be reached. Bacon rejected deducing knowledge from self-evident principles and instead argued that only through observation and repeatable experiments could theories be built. Bacon thus relied on proofs that could be demonstrated physically, not through deductive logic. He believed that the pursuit of scientific knowledge would enrich human life immeasurably. Galileos lunar observations extend from 1609 to 1638 when failing eyesight compelled him to abandon his astronomical research. During these three decades, he discovered an important contribution to our understanding of three important aspects of the moon. 1. The discovery of the mountainous surface of the moon and the first lunar maps; 2. The discovery of the moons liberations; 3. The interpretation of the moons secondary light. In 1632, Galileo was still firmly convinced that the moon always shows the same face to the earth and he sought to explain all the differences in his lunar observations. Galileos important discovery destroyed the age-old belief that the moon always presented the same aspect to the earth. One of Newtons early notebooks, Add. MS 3975 in the Portsmouth collection suggests a pattern for his early interest in alchemy. Originally, the notebook appears to have been a continuation of the section entitled Questiones quaedam Philosophiae in an earlier notebook (Add. MS 3996), a section which records Newtons introduction to the mechanical philosophy of nature while he was still an undergraduate. Meanwhile Newtons introduction to the art involved a dimension beyond the intellectual. Among his papers is a collection of alchemical manuscripts, in three different hands, mostly of tracts, which have never been published. Since Newton corrected a couple of the poems in the collection against Ashmole, where these specific ones were published, numbered quite a few of the recipes, and copied some of the tracts, we can be sure that he studied the collection with care. John Locke, another English philosopher, considered these ideas but interpreted them differently. Locke supported the Parliament in the struggles with James II. He articulated the principles on which supporters of the Glorious Revolution acted in 1688, publishing them in his Two Treatises of Government in 1690. Much like Hobbes, Locke believed that people had first lived individually and then made a social contract. He also believed that people had given up only some of their individual rights and had kept others. According to Locke, a ruler who violated these rights violated natural law and broke the unwritten social contract. The people had the right to overthrow such a ruler and replace him with one who pledged to observe and protect their rights. Locke thus defended the actions of those who had forced James II to leave the throne, and provided a justification for offering the crown to William and Mary. Lockes ideas would influence later revolutions in America and France as well. Voltaire acquired a great admiration for English liberty, commerce, science, and religious toleration. His angriest words were directed against established Christianity, to which he attributed many of the ills of French society. He regarded Christianity as the Christ-worshiping superstition, which someday would be destroyed by the weapons of reason. Many Christian dogmas are incomprehensible, yet Christians have slaughtered one another to enforce obedience to these doctrines. After serving two sentences in the Bastille, Voltaire fled

AP Biology Essays

AP Biology Essays AP Biology Essays AP Biology Essays While AP biology essays writing is different from other academic assignments; there are several rules common for all essays.   For example, AP biology essays should follow the standard format including abstract, outline, introduction, background, analysis, discussion, and conclusion.   Read the following short sample of AP biology essay and pay attention to the structure of paragraphs. More samples can be read in our free writing guide. If you need help with writing your AP biology essays, do not hesitate to request our writing assistance. writers will write a perfect AP biology essay for you from scratch and in accordance to the instructions. AP Biology Essay Sample Any investigation relating to natural beings needs some way of distinguishing each one of them in such a manner as to avoid confusion with the countless others which Dame Nature brings to our notice. Natural History ought therefore to possess as a basic tool some "Natural System" or comprehensive list containing an agreed name for every single being, thus enabling it to be identified by reference to its distinctive features. As no living organism is entirely simple in its character, it is insufficient to try to distinguish it merely by one single feature of its make-up. We must therefore, nearly always, rely on a combination of several distinct features if we wish to differentiate any particular individual from its fellows, which latter may in part, if not entirely, through their very similarity show traits pertaining to the first specimen. In a like manner, such original sample may present characters common to itself as well as to all the others and will then be distinguishable only through those features not possessed by the remainder. Some beings are very closely related to one another in the biological sense and possess many characters in common, whilst others show far less a degree of similarity in detail. The larger the quantity of beings requiring identification, the greater the number of characters will it be necessary to take into consideration, even perhaps down to the point of making a complete and exhaustive specification of every single detail of the living form. This state of affairs necessitates the setting-up of divisions and subdivisions. As mentioned above, some individuals will show a large number of features in common, and may then be grouped together as a genus, wherein differences in detail are slight. The genera will then have to be classified and, repeating the operation, closely related genera will be combined to form an order. Similarly, orders related in rank will form a class. All this implies some framework and method, and nothing could be more suitable than the "Natural Method," that is to say, an arrangement showing us how individual members of one particular genus are more like each other than to members of other genera, and how the genera of a particular order are more alike to each other than to those of other orders, and so on. This is the system towards which Natural History must necessarily tend, since obviously if an exact system of classification can be attained, the complete portrayal of Nature will have been achieved. AP Biology Essay Writing Service Writing AP biology essays is not easy because you have to be able to put your thoughts on the paper and possess sufficient understanding of the topic. Biology is a science and, therefore, you should adapt scientific approach to writing AP biology essays.   If you do not want to spend hours researching and reading, you have a perfect opportunity to get a custom written AP biology essay.   Contact us and we will write your AP biology essay within any deadline of your choice! No plagiarism! Custom written essays and papers are free of plagiarism and meet your requirements.

The Importance of Cover Design Professionals

The Importance of Cover Design Professionals "The importance of hiring a cover design professional": An interview with Rachel Lawston The range of freelancer talent available for independent authors today is astonishing. Designer Rachel Lawston, who we interview today, is a perfect example of that. After working in-house for Penguin Random House, she is now freelance and works both for big publishers (HarperCollins) and indie authors. But is it really worth it, for an independent author with a limited budget to invest in such a talented professional for the cover design? We, at Reedsy, firmly believe it is.As we discuss in the interview, many covers out there look very similar. Self-published books are still very much stigmatised by certain spheres of the publishing industry, and that is mainly due to the quality of the books’ production (i.e. the cover, because that is the first thing you see). Rachel shares her views on that, and more, in this very insightful interview.Hi Rachel, great to have you here. You’re one of our best childrens and YA designers on Reedsy. And you’ve worked both in-hou se and as a freelancer. How did you get started in book design?Wow thank you so much, that is very kind of you to say! My first role in publishing was an assistant designer position at Walker Books. I was very lucky as I was trained by some very talented and wonderful people there and their books are so creative.You’ve worked in-house for Penguin Random House for over 3 years, and have now gone freelance. What do you reckon is the proportion of designers/editors who have done just that in the past few years? Gosh that is a tough question to answer – I honestly don’t know. I have noticed a lot of excitement and interest over the growth of new media, and different ways of working, perhaps that has caused more people to go freelance?You work both for big publishers, independent ones, and indie authors. Are there any differences in the way you approach things with these different clients? What’s your typical way of working with an indie author? I always treat every book with the same level of respect and careful attention that it needs to become the best it can be, regardless of whether it is a big publisher, independent or an indie author. Some books need more time than others, but that it is the nature of book design. Publishers and independent authors have their own very individual working styles and demands which make them exciting and a pleasure to work with.One of the nicest things about working with indie authors, is that they often take an active role in the creative process. I really enjoy working in collaboration with indie authors because the experience is so different to working with a publisher. For instance, I don’t think I can ever really explain the feeling of immense satisfaction I feel when I design a book cover for an indie author. When you directly work for an author, you witness their journey.When working with an indie author I always design a package around their individual book/series, with the their object ives and their budget in mind. If the author is based near to me, I always try to meet them (often in a bookshop!) so that we can discuss ideas, outline their aims and how they want to publish their book.I really like this sentence on your Reedsy profile: â€Å"You’ll have all the benefits of my experience, understanding of brand management, post-production and project management†. Do you think that when working with indie authors, designers have to be more than just graphic artists?Thank you! I feel it is important to support my authors as much as I am able. My experience means that I am able to offer these services.I think that the â€Å"you need an editor† message has really sunk in for most (serious) indie authors out there. However, many of them are still trying to make cuts on cover design and interior layout. Is it really worth it for an indie author with a limited budget to invest in a proper graphic design professional?Gosh, that is a tough question! I always feel very mean when I tell people about the importance of hiring a design professional, as I realise not everyone has the budget to do so.I believe that an eye-catching, well-crafted, well-designed cover increases the value of a book to readers and booksellers. A book cover should receive as much careful attention as it needs to become the best it can be, just like the text within.A professional designer will ensure you’re completely happy with your book before it goes to press because your book matters to them, and their final design reflects that.I do understand that some authors may not have the budget to pay the full fee for my services, which is why I create packages around each individual author, to suit their objectives and their budget.We discussed this in our last interview with a designer: Stewart Williams, and I’d love to have your thoughts on it: do you think there is a lack of originality in book covers out there? Are publishers/authors afraid to tr y new things in terms of design?I definitely agree with Stewarts comment â€Å"I think there’s only a small window of time in which you can emulate an idea and still be successful. The rest of the time you’ve got to try something different. It is a risk, and although people have to take risks, they usually don’t want to be the first one.†I think it’s very important to be the first rather than the second! The last thing an author wants, if for their book to be lost amongst similar looking books!Do you prefer working directly with the author (and the author only), or working under the structure of a traditional publisher and interacting with the author, the editorial team, the marketing department, etc.?I love variety. One of the best things about being a freelancer is the diversity of work. I enjoy working with both indie authors and publishers equally!How do you see the future of children’s book publishing? Is it print books, apps, both? I s ee apps and ebooks as another format – like a hardback or paperback. I think there will always be print books.And how do you see the future of graphic design within children’s book publishing? Will designers also be formatters, app developers, or even publishers?I actually know a couple of designers who already work as publishers! One of the best things about being a designer in children’s publishing is that you are such valued part of the team.Thanks so much for taking this time for us!Follow Reedsy and Rachel on TwitterLearn more about book cover design, book layout design, typography or illustration on Reedsy. Click on our design links!Check out our Facebook page for daily posts, images, and videos on self-publishing and book marketing!How do you see the future of children’s books? Do you agree that covers out there, in general, look too similar? Do you think it is worth investing in professional cover design? Let us know your thoughts in the comments below!

Pervious Studies about abnormal behavior ( sociology ) Assignment

Pervious Studies about abnormal behavior ( sociology ) - Assignment Example They are negatively distinguished from heterosexual homeless youth (Cochran, Stewart, Ginzler, & Cauce, 2002). The authors of the two research studies I chose, for this summary, have pointed out reasons why the topic of lesbian and gay youth’s reflection and challenges are areas of great importance. The author of the study on television programming says that there are very few lesbian and gay characters, especially positive role models, in television programming. Yet television is an important resource for lesbian and gay people to have vicarious experience and shape identity, beliefs and values, especially in the case where their own literal experience is limited. (Fisher, Hill, Grube, & Gruber, 2007) A consequence is that the lesbian/gay community is kept invisible, when there are insufficient models, and is undeservedly portrayed in stereotypically negative ways when the models are negative, reinforcing judgmental heterosexual stereotypes (Fisher, Hill, Grube, & Gruber, 2007). Another reason why the study is important is that there is very little research done on this specific topi c (Fisher, Hill, Grube, & Gruber, 2007), and so this study will be able to contribute to the field. The author of the other study, on homeless lesbian, bisexual, gay and transgendered youth, feels the topic is important because gay and lesbian adolescents, in general, are at increased risk for physical and mental problems (Cochran, Stewart, Ginzler, & Cauce, 2002). Studies indicate that between 11% and 35% of homeless youth are lesbian or gay. This led the authors of this study to suspect that being homeless and a member of a sexual minority would likely increase their risk (Cochran, Stewart, Ginzler, & Cauce, 2002). The challenges of surviving on the streets, on top of the challenging histories that lesbian and gay youth may already have, are enormous. This makes it a critical study. The first research article is, â€Å"Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Content on

An evaluation of the impact of immigration on Social Cohesion in Essay

An evaluation of the impact of immigration on Social Cohesion in present day Britain - Essay Example Only 8 of the respondents representing 15.38% were dissatisfied with their financial situation while 28 (53.85%) were satisfied and another 4 (7.69%) were very satisfied. Fifteen (28.85%) of the respondent agreed that Britain provides adequate financial assistance to citizens while 16(30.77%) were neutral and 12 (23.17%) disagreed with 11 disagreeing and 1 strongly disagreeing. Nine of the respondents (17.31%) did not know. Nearly half (24 representing 46.15%) of the respondents thought that the number of immigrants in Britain were acceptable. Thirteen (25%) thought there were too many immigrants in Britain, 4 (7.15%) thought the number of immigrants in Britain were too low and 11 (21.15%) had no opinion or did not know. A majority of respondents thought that immigration was good for Britain (4 strongly agreeing [7.84%]; 18 agreeing [35.29%]) while 13 (25.49%) were neutral and 12 (23.53%) disagreed and 1 (1.96%) strongly disagreed. Three (5.88%) did not know. From the respondents’ perspective, immigration, social issues and education were the main issues effecting Britain today. However there were 13 items that the respondents were able to choose from and there were nearly evenly divided (See Figure 1 below). A majority of the respondents had neutral attitudes toward immigration (21 representing 44.46%) and 20 representing 44.44% had positive attitudes. Only 2 of the respondents (4.44%) and another 2 were negative or did not know. A majority of the respondents (2 [4.44%] strongly agreeing; 26 [57.785] agreeing) that the UK was land of economic opportunity). Seven (15.56%) were neutral, while 9 (20%) disagreed and 1 (2.22%) strongly disagreed. The results of the survey demonstrate that there is a significant shift on the public’s attitudes toward immigration. Previously, national polls had progressively demonstrated a negative attitude

Annotated Bibliography: Drug Delivery Mechanisms

Annotated Bibliography: Drug Delivery Mechanisms LITERATURE REVIEW Nyol et al., had presented thesis on among all dosage forms tablet is the most popular dosage form existing today because of its convenience of self administration, compactness and easy manufacturing; sometimes immediate onset of action is required than conventional therapy in many cases. So that to overcome these drawbacks, immediate release dosage form has emerged as alternative oral dosage forms. Immediate drug release dosage forms disintegrate rapidly after administration with enhanced rate of dissolution tablets .The objective of this work was to explain about immediate release tablets. P. Rohini et al., Developed oral disintegrating tablets of Rosuvastatin by superdisintegrants addition method by direct compression technique using sodium starch glycolate, croscarmellose sodium, lycoat Rs 720 and cross povidone in different concentrations. All the formulations were evaluated for disintegration, hardness, friability, dug content and dissolution study. The best release formulation was compared with the marketed product of Rosuvastatin. Bheemeswara rao k et Al., The objective of this study was to develop immediate release film coated tablets of Rosuvastatin by wet granulation method. Different formulations were made by using various concentrations of superdisintegrants ployplasdon XL-10 and granulating fluids like water, isopropyl alcohol and butyl hydroxyl toluene. Opadry pink was used as film coating material. The prepared tablets were evaluated for the physical characteristics, invitro dissolution and stability. Mayank Bansal., et.al.Zaltoprofen is a nont concentran-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAIDs) with powerful analgesic action on inflammatory pain. The purpose of this research work was to formulate an immediate release tablet of Zaltoprofen for the treatment of pain and inflammation, by using superdisintegratnts such as Croscarmellose sodium and different grades of microcrystalline cellulose. Immediate release tablets of Zaltoprofen were prepared by direct compression method using superdisintegratnts such as Croscarmellose sodium and different grades of microcrystalline cellulose in different ratios. Sodium starch glycolate was added to aid disintegration. Murdochet al., 2005 :( Escitalopram (Cipralex ®, Lexaproâ„ ¢), the activeS-enantiomers of the racemic selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) citalopram (RS-citalopram), is a highly selective inhibitor of the serotonin transporter protein. It possesses a rapid onset of antidepressant activity, and is an effective and generally well tolerated treatment for moderate-to-severe major depressive disorder (MDD). Pooled analyses from an extensive clinical trial database suggest that escitalopram is consistently more effective than citalopram in moderate-to-severe MDD. Mishra DN et al., 2005: Formulated rapid disintegrating oral tablets of valdecoxib using super disintegrating agents such as crosspovidone, croscarmellose sodium, sodium starch glycolate. The results showed rapid disintegration with use of cross caramellose sodium at low concentrations.   Chaudhari PD et al., 2005: Formulated fast dissolving tablets of famotidine by using croscaramellose sodium and crospovidone as superdisintegrants. Famotidine was initially masked for its bitter taste by preparing solid dispersion with eudragit E100. Compressed tablets containing different concentrations of super disintegrants showed disintegration time between 11 to 26 seconds. Invitro release was about 92% to 1005 at the end of 12 minutes. Schreimer T et al., 2005: Investigated about the mechanism of immediate drug release from solid oral dosage forms. They found that starch and cellulose substances favoured the matrix disintegration and the generation of effective dissolution surface of the drug substances. They developed a mathematical model suitable for the characterization and optimization of immediate drug release by the choice and modification of excipients. Stanifort John N et al., 2004: Studied that microcrystalline cellulose excipients having improved compressibility whether utilized in direct compression, dry granulation or wet granulation and possess excellent disintegration and dissolution properties when exposed to gastrointestinal fluid. Emily R et al., 2004: Citalopram, a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor, is used as a neuroendocrine probe in human subjects to assess serotonin function as reflected in prolactin and plasma cortisol release. Citalopram is a racemic mixture of equal proportions of the S(+) and R(−) enantiomers. Inhibition of serotonin reuptake and, consequently, antidepressant activity is associated, almost exclusively, with the S(+) enantiomers (â€Å"escitalopram†). Shirwaikar A et al., 2004: Carried out formulation of fast dissolving tablets of granisetron hydrochloride using super disintegrants by direct compression method, formulation containing crospovidone and croscarmellose sodium displayed shortest disintegration time compared to other disintegrants. Shimizu T et al., 2003: Performed the formulation study of lansaprazole fast disintegrating tablet by MCC, low substituted hydroxyl propylcellulose and cross povidone as binders and disintegrants respectively. Formulation showed rapid disintegration of tablets in mouth (not more than 30 seconds). Larry Augsburger L et al., 2002: Studied about characterization and functions of super disintegrants. In recent years, several newer disintegrants have been developed called superdisintegrants and these disintegrants may be organized into three classes based on their chemical structure (such as SSG, crospovidone and croscaramellose sodium). It was concluded that these would be used at lower levels than starch and any possible adverse effect on fluidity would be minimized.   Bi YX et al., 1999: Evaluated rapidly disintegrating tablets prepared by direct compression method using excipients MCC, lactose, croscaramellose sodium and erythritol. Within the optimal region, the minimum tensile strength was 5kg/cm2 while the maximum disintegration time was 15 seconds. The method described here was useful for the preparation of rapidly disintegrating tablets. Chetan N. Yeole et al., Formulated and evaluated paroxetine immediate release tablets. Paroxetine is a selective serotonine reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) used in treatment of depression. Paroxetine immediate release tablet have been prepared by direct compression method. Effect of various fillers and disintegrants were also explored. MCC and DI-Tab were used as directly compressible fillers. In order to obtain acceptable product several trials were conducted. Various pharmacopoeial evaluations of the formulations were conducted including weight variation, hardness, friability, disintegration time and dissolution. Final selection of formulation was done on pharmaceutical equivalence of developed formulation to that of marketed one. Rishikesh et.al. Studied Immediate Release Drug Delivery Systems. Oral administration is the most popular route for the systemic effects due to its ease of ingestion, pain, avoidance, versatility and most importantly patient compliance. Tablets or capsules are most popular among all dosage forms existing today because of its convenience of self administration, compactness and easy manufacturing; however in many cases immediate onset of action is required than conventional therapy. By using MCC, DI-TAB, CCS, SSG like excipients we will achieve the immediate release. Syed azeem.et.al Studied immediate Release Drug Delivery Systems. Tablet is the most popular among all dosage forms existing today because of its convenience of self administration, compactness and easy manufacturing; however in many cases immediate onset of action is required than conventional therapy. To overcome these drawbacks, immediate release pharmaceutical dosage form has emerged as alternative oral dosage forms. There are novel types of dosage forms that act very quickly after administration. The basic approach used in development tablets is the use of superdisintegrants like Cross linked carboxy methyl cellulose, Sodium starch glycolate, Poly vinyl pyrrolidone etc. which provide instantaneous disintegration of tablet after administration. Immediate release liquid dosage forms and parenteral dosage form have also been introduced for treating patients.

Human factors in aviation accidents Essay

As a result of researches that recognized the existence of human factors in error management, the aviation industry also began to take initiatives to reformat aviation organisations. The aviation industry shifted to a more open culture that valued communication and at the same time recognized that human error will always be present but through time and more advanced studies can be reduced further (Sexton, Thomas & Helmreich, 2000). Almost all aspects have been looked into. Selection and training processes were raised to a different level. While technical skills were highly valued before, they have been found to be inadequate in dealing with safety concerns. Selection of aircrew now includes processes that determine their ability to learn from errors and to become team players. There also has been a new approach for training – not only the pilots, but the entire crew is trained. There are also a mounting number of interventions that are being tested for their effectivity to modify behavioral patterns that could injure a system’s safety. Because crew resource management (CRM) failure is implicated in most aircraft accidents, CRM training programs, which began as a part of a National Aeronautics and Space Administration [NASA] program in 1979, began to be widely received by aviation organisations. Now on its 5th generation, CRM trainings for the crew have been conducted by major airlines and even the navy. The CRM training program encompasses many aspects of aviation safety such as situation awareness, task management and communication (Thomas, 2004). The 5th generation CRM programs can be viewed as a tool to effectively manage errors. CRM combats errors in three ways: obviously, the first one is the avoidance of error; the second Human Factors in Aviation Accidents 10 one is the â€Å"suppression† of the error before it happens; and third, the mitigation of the effects of the errors should it not be avoided (Helmreich, Merritt & Wilhelm, 1999). The focus of the 5th generation CRM is the normalization of errors – whether due to active or latent failures – and the development of strategies to manage these errors (Helmreich, Merritt & Wilhelm, 1999). Although CRM programs focus on human errors and its effects on aviation safety, it is never entirely a behavioral training. After all, if you recall, a â€Å"productive system† is an interaction of human and technological factors. Therefore, CRM is not to be taken as a stand-alone program. It is meant to be incorporated to technical trainings where the crew has to be adept in the operation of modern aviation technology and at the same time has to learn non-technical skills such as effective communication, coordination and teamwork. Despite the fact that intervention programs like the CRM has been introduced and conducted for crews in major and regional airlines for the two decades, the percentage of CRM failures in aviation accidents remained relatively flat (Wiegmann & Shappell, 2001). Although initial results of CRM programs have been found to be encouraging such that positive results were seen almost immediately after the conduction of the program, it was soon obvious that such results were short-lived (Taneja, 2002). What could have happened that prevented such interventions to perform as expected? Helmreich & Merritt (2000) offers an explanation – at least for CRM. First, not everybody responds to CRM training. Some may have become less accepting of CRM after the training. Although attitudes do not necessarily define behavior, it has been a well-known maxim that those who reject a concept are more likely not to follow the principles that it imparts. (Helmreich, Merritt & Wilhelm, 1999). Human Factors in Aviation Accidents 11 Culture – national, professional and organisational – is also a significant factor that determines the level of acceptance for a CRM concept (Helmreich & Merritt, 2000). When CRM was introduced to other national cultures, it soon became evident that certain CRM concepts can either be readily accepted or rejected depending on the national culture. Cultures such as China and many Latin American countries that stress the importance of absolute power and authority of their leaders will necessarily be less receptive to the idea of subordinates questioning the decisions of their leaders, than cultures that are less hierarchical (Hofstede, 1980 as cited by Helmreich, Merrit & Wilhelm, 1999). While CRM programs encourage subordinates to be more assertive in questioning their leaders, junior crew members in these cultures are quite disinclined to do this because of fear of showing disrespect. These same cultures are also collectivists who stress interdependenc and the necessity to work together for a common goal. In contrast, American and European cultures, which are highly individualistic, give more value to independence and more priority to individual goals. The value of teamwork and the need for coordination will most likely be readily accepted in the former than in the latter. There are also High Uncertainty Avoidance cultures like Greece, Korea and many Latin American countries that prefer CRM concepts already specifying required behaviors. Cultures that are low in Uncertainty Avoidance tend to be more flexible when it comes to behaviors but have difficulty adhering to standard operating procedures. Furthermore, this kind of culture, along with non-collectivist cultures are more questioning with regards to the usage of automation while High Uncertainty Avoidance and collectivist cultures accept the idea of automation usually without, or relatively less, questions. Intervention programs such as CRM should therefore not be patterned after a single national culture. From the discussion it can be seen above that autocratic cultures can also Human Factors in Aviation Accidents 12 value teamwork and interdependence than non-autocratic cultures (Helmreich, in press). Cultures exhibiting difficulty of adherence to SOPs may be more innovative when dealing with novel situations not covered by procedures. In contrast, cultures who stress strict adherence to rules may find it difficult to be more flexible in new situations. Although CRM programs require behavior modification, certain beliefs ingrained into a culture are quite difficult to modify. If CRM has to attain widespread global use, it has to design programs that are congruent to national culture and yet still enhances safety. Error management should therefore be embraced as a culture in itself. Focusing on threat and error management as goals, training programs should not aim for a total reversal of norms and beliefs but rather for a drawing out of positive behaviors without directly confronting national culture. Many professions, including aviation, have strong cultures and develop their own norms and values (Helmreich, in press). Each culture encompasses both positive and negative aspects. Aircrew for example has a high level of motivation and a strong sense of professional pride. The negative component, which is seen to be universal, is the inability to admit vulnerability to stressors. Majority of pilots in almost all national cultures agree that their decision-making abilities are not hampered by personal problems and that it is as good in emergency situations as in normal situations. Furthermore, most of these pilots have indicated that they do not make errors even while under stress. This â€Å"macho† culture, when left uncorrected, can lead to risk taking, failure to coordinate with other crew members and error. Indeed, one focus of the 5th generation CRM program is to help pilots acknowledge that human error does occur and they are more vulnerable to it if they continue to deny the existence and effect of stressors. As stated earlier, the organisational culture determines the principle of the organisation towards safety. One reason why CRM does not deliver results when it should is Human Factors in Aviation Accidents 13 the organisational context on which the program was delivered (Helmreich & Merritt, 2000). Organisations may have a highly evolved safety culture and possesses a positive outlook on safety. Such organisations will most likely benefit from CRM and other intervention strategies. Others react only to safety threats once they are looming while some organisations give perfunctory attention to safety issues without really embracing a safety culture that works towards a highly effective accident prevention program. The current process of investigating errors during accidents also contributes to the apparently limited success of intervention strategies. Most accident reporting systems are primarily technological and have been designed with little regard to human factors. Such systems are on their way to being perfected in terms of identifying mechanical failures but in itself is also a bit of a failure when it comes to assessment of human errors (Wiegmann & Shappell, 2001). An examination of an accident investigation process may help drive down the point. When an accident due to mechanical failure happens, investigators examine objective and quantifiable information such as that obtained from the flight data recorder. The data is processed and the probable causes of the accident are recorded so that safety recommendations can be identified. After the investigation, the data obtained is entered into a database which can be periodically accessed to provide feedback to investigators. The information in the database can also be used by funding organizations to determine which researches to fund. As a result, intervention strategies are further developed to prevent mechanical failure from happening or mitigate consequences once they do happen (Helmreich & Merritt, 2000). Either way, the number of accidents due to mechanical failures has been greatly reduced. Human Factors in Aviation Accidents 14 In contrast, investigations of accidents due to human errors produce results that are not tangible and are difficult to quantify. And because the studies of human factors came later than studies of mechanical failures, investigative techniques used in human error analysis are less refined than those used to assess engineering and design concerns. When these techniques are used to analyze accident data, the results are rarely very useful and safety issues cannot be readily addressed. Therefore any intervention strategy designed using this data is not assured of success. Taneja (2002) echoes this concern stating that human errors have been implicated in 70-80% of aircraft accidents demonstrating the very limited success of current intervention strategies and also proposes a solution: a holistic approach to intervention strategies. To date, most researches on human factors in aviation have focused on specific aspects of aircraft accident prevention. Sarter and Alexander (2000) have observed that current researches on human error focus mainly on three key aspects: the development of error classification schemes, the design of error-tolerant systems, and error prevention through improved design and additional training (as cited by Taneja, 2002). Because accident prevention is such a wide field of study, it is very possible that certain aspects have been missed out or overlooked. Error framework also abound as almost every human factor researcher comes up with his own error framework. With so many intervention strategies proposed by researchers and some even practiced in the industry, there have been inadequate attempts to integrate these strategies into a holistic solution. A holistic approach to intervention strategies involve looking at all the possible links to an aircraft accident in order to come up with an intervention that best fits an organisation. Basing on all the links, an organisation must assess in what area their weaknesses lie and determine if these need intervention. The intervention strategy to be used in a certain Human Factors in Aviation Accidents 15 organisation will therefore be customized according the weak links in the organisation’s system. The two links that are directly related to aviation accidents are the aircraft and the aircrew. Although accidents due to mechanical failures have been greatly reduced to advancement in technology, there needs to be constant assessment of the aircraft in general and the human factors affecting the man-machine interface in particular (Taneja, 2002). Intervention strategies that can be applied to aircrew can be divided into two broad categories: selection and training. Ever since the knowledge that human factors contribute to aviation accidents, the selection process have been amended such that the pilots are not chosen based on technical skill alone but more so on their ability to coordinate with fellow aircrew, recognize their own errors and be willing to work with others to deal with these errors. Once chosen, the pilot’s training will have a great impact on his proficiency and possibly, on his ability to avoid accidents. Possible interventions on these two main links can have a major influence on the number of accidents encountered by the organisation. The process of accident investigation, although a secondary link, should also be looked into in for possible intervention strategies. To date there is no benchmark as to the training and expertise a safety investigator must have. In order for a standardised level of investigation to be achieved, there needs to be a minimum with regards to the exposure an investigator must have. The investigative tools that the safety investigator uses could also be subject to an intervention. As discussed earlier, investigation techniques for human errors are inadequate at present and needs further researches in order the reach the level of refinement of evaluative techniques for mechanical failures. The kinds of human errors as discussed by Wiegmann and Shappell (2001) while developing HFACS, are also links that could be used to come up with more effective Human Factors in Aviation Accidents 16 intervention strategies. Furthermore, autopsy results during aircraft accidents, although unable to prevent future accidents, can be used to design intervention strategies that will make an aircraft accident more survivable. Upon carefully assessing the links just mentioned and determining the areas that need intervention, it is recognized that the success of any strategy ultimately depends on the Organisational Safety Culture (Taneja, 2002). Toft (1989) defined an organisation’s safety culture as â€Å"the set of norms, beliefs, attitudes and roles, social and technical practices that minimizes the exposure of the managers, employees and the general public to conditions considered dangerous or injurious† (as cited by Taneja, 2002). Discussed in brief earlier, the way an organisation handles errors and error management strategies depend on its safety culture. A safety conscious organisation will not treat an accident as just another unavoidable circumstance but rather will focus its efforts in preventing future accidents from happening. A careful investigation that searches for the possible factors leading to the occurrence of the accident will be performed. Ideally, an organisation with a highly effective safety culture will aim to plug the hole in the Swiss cheese model before another opportunity for a catastrophe will be created (Reason, 1990 as cited by Taneja, 2002). Even organisations that have a sound safety culture however can still be plagued by errors caused by human limitations such as fatigue, severe workloads, inadequate training, poorly-maintained equipment and errors caused by the air traffic control which would consequently affect the aircrew and the organisation. Even if the organisation has tried to remove every conceivable active and latent failure, chance errors can still take place (Heimrich & Merritt, 2000). But every organisation is bound to have a loophole. Thus, constant monitoring of all aspects in the organisation , whether directly related to safety or not, is essential. Human Factors in Aviation Accidents 17 Because errors can arise from a variety of sources, any single intervention strategy, such as the CRM must not be taken as a panacea for eliminating error. CRM is only a tool that organisations use to perform error management. All intervention strategies have its limitation – the effects it will have on an organisation depends on the national culture, the strengths and weaknesses of the professional culture, and the organisational safety culture. Furthermore, the way the people at the frontline perceive the intervention strategy will affect the outcome of such a strategy. In summary, the study of human factors affecting aircraft accidents has fostered an abundance of researches in this field. With the conception of CRM almost three decades ago, numerous error frameworks and intervention strategies have been proposed and used. Unfortunately, such a plethora of studies have not created a significant reduction on human error-related aircraft accidents. Presumably because it is still a relatively young field, the researches need more focus and the intervention strategies need more refinement. Intervention strategies have to address differences in national, professional and organisational culture. It is also important that intervention strategies be customized to a certain organisation to ensure a greater amount of success. With the continuous development and improvement of researches in this field, there will bound to be a breakthrough in time, and the success that has long been sought will finally be at hand. Human Factors in Aviation 18. References Helmreich, R. L. (in press). Culture, threat and error: Assessing system safety. 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